Christianity developed as Judean sect…Sadducees, Pharisees, Zealots, and Essenes.

Earliest Christians were Jewish, and modern historians debate how long Christians were Jewish. Paul is apostle to the gentiles. By the end of the first century, there are more gentile Christians than Jewish Christians. Two stages in Christian development. Early church was very small; conversion was very slow for first hundred years. Roman indifference and persecution, motive for not becoming a Christian. Christianity promises salvation and is broadly based. Small mystery cults started springing up. Christianity was most open and least secretive. Promise was regardless of class, gender and ethnicity. Women converted before men. Moral message that appealed to stoics and women. Stoics because they insisted on a very moral life. Women saw security in Christian marriage. Sense of community: works of mercy, charity. Sense of urgency: Parousia (thus no hurry to write down Jesus narratives). Erratic and sporadic persecution. Pliny the younger wrote to an emperor about having early Christians and the emperor said not to do anything unless the cause trouble. Pax Romana. Roman Peace. Ideas could spread rapidly, so disciples like Paul could get on a ship and go around Rome preaching the gospel. Emperor becomes Christian in fourth century, so do upper classes, and so does mass conversion. Authority within the early church. Paul’s letters show conflict over the early Christian church. Can’t eliminate conflict, but minimizes by providing a mechanism for resolving differences. They create authority, which saved Christianity. The difference between those who are taught and those who are being taught. Founded by apostles, then there is a bishop instructed by apostles in faith. He mediates disputes. Priests, deacons. Different Christian communities. Most early Christians were urban. People in country side were called pagans. Most senior bishops are patriarch. Five traditional, Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Rome, Constantinople; in order of establishment. Established scripture. Teaching was oral in Christian community. Paul, Peter, James write letter of instruction. Gospels written as narrative of Christ’s life. Best way to fix a dispute is a meeting, called a council or senate. Around 60, council deciding whether gentile men had to be circumcised. First major is at Nicaea in 325. Constantine wanted to use Christianity to conquer the empire, so at Nicaea he tells them to work it out. Nicene Creed. Imperial patronage. In 313, Constantine and eastern colleague Lucinius, end the persecution started by Diocletian. Edict of Milan ends that persecution, but favors Christians. Build large churches (basilica, church of holy apostles, etc.), restores confiscated land, weekend. Gov offices were to close every 7^th day, the Christian Sabbath. Since Sunday was a day of rest he had the weekend. When Constantine dies in 339, he is baptized. Massive upper class conversions. Romans are living in country sides because of agriculture. Theodosian Code in 395 makes Christianity state religion. It doesn’t mean everyone is a Christian, but the people in control of society are.

Missed a couple of days

2/27/08 – Heirs of the Romans, Germans, Byzantines and Muslims

Five pillars of Islam – One God and Muhammad is prophet, Daily prayers, almsgiving to the needy, fasting, hajj to Mecca. History of Islam – development of Islamic world and Islamic civilization. The Islamic world develops quickly, conquer vast regions quickly (50 yrs), because the people they were taking were weak. They struck at an opportune time as Byzantine and Persians were exhausting each other. 632 – Muhammad dies. Successor called Caliph but there is dispute over who the successor is. Should office of Caliph have a prophetic calling? Any man or relative of Muhammad? This is the argument. First Dynasty – Umayyad. Second – Abbasids. Sunni Muslims accept the leaders that don’t have prophets. Followers of Ali call themselves Shiites. Caliphs go to conquer empire from Afghanistan to Western Europe including Spain 711. Abbasids have ties to Sh’ia and in first hundred years portion of people convert and become Muslim. The rich and powerful convert first with expectations to retain wealth. Umayyad want a pro-Arab policy. 750, bloody revolution in capital of Damascus (accessible to Arab conquering territories). Kill every male member of the Umayyad family. Capital of Damascus moved near Tigris river to Baghdad. Becomes capital of entire Islamic years for over 500 years. One Umayyad escapes, so he goes to Spain and by about 755, he is the ruler of Spain. Cordoba is the second capital of Muslim world. Egyptian Muslims claim independence. Three Caliphs. In 1055 – Seljuk Turks conquer Baghdad, and dominate Caliphate. Abbasids are puppets to the Seljuk. Mongols eventually end the Abbasid Caliph and Turkish empire has title of Caliph. Islam puts together an important civilization. For the first 500 years, Arabs are open to the cultures that they encounter. What is the relationship between science and religion. Man of science, Man of Faith. Does science contradict religion? Until 13^th century, Muslims are open to cultures they conquer. They take the science and philosophy of Persian and Roman worlds. This keeps and increases the cultures. Ibn Rushd and theory of the Double Truth. The importance of Arabic also holds the civilization together. Arabic becomes common language, so non Arabic speakers have to learn to speak it since it is language of conquerors. Muhammad said God spoke to him in Arabic. Muslims are resistant to thought that Quran be translated out of Arabic. Mecca – brings people together and disseminates the ideas and technologies (irrigation, cotton, sugar, melons, dates, rice, paper, citrus, etc.). Muslim civilization reaches peak around 9^th 10^th and 11^th centuries. Ibn Rushd exiled because authorities become suspicious of science and secular knowledge.

Kingdom of the Franks – From Clovis to Charlemagne

Clovis – 481 – 511. Leader among Frankish people who hailed from area around mouth of the Rhine river. In late 5^th century, Final roman authority in Gaul is challenged. Clovis begins an invasion on this authority. He essentially consolidates control over Franks. Clovis says “Woe is me, I have no relatives” he killed them all. At the same time he is killing political rivals, he is extending Frankish authority over Gaul. Baptism in 496. Did it for power. No respectable Christian roman family could have daughter marry a pagan. In order to be successful he had to win over the roman upper class, so he married one. 507 - The Battle of Vouille, he defeats major Germanic opposition in Gaul – the Visigoths get kicked out and moved to Spain. Clovis had support of bishops because Visigoth king was a heretic. Clovis unites Gaul and it becomes the Merovingian kingdom. He and his descendants rule Gaul for the next 200 years. Treat kingdom not as a state but united. Divided kingdom among four principle sons. Frankish kingdom isn’t attacked in weakness. Franks regroup under a new group called the Carolingians.

The Romans

Kick out Etruscan king and establish a republic. Italy is in Mediterranean. Subject surrounding communities to Roman rule. This brings Rome in conflict with Carthage who was about 75 years older. Carthage had a commercial state around top of Africa, and was richest city state n Mediterranean, benefiting from soil of southern Spain. In 264, Rome and Carthage fight over Sicily. Marks the beginning of the Punic Wars. B/t 264 and 146 there are three wars. 264-241 – Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica. Second war: 218 – 202, Hannibal vs. Scipio Africanus; southern Spain. Greek settlers were helping out the Carthaginians in the fight against Rome. Carthage loses all three of the Punic wars. In 202 there was a debate in Rome over how big to become. They decide to go for it. Conquer Carthage and Northern Africa around Carthage and Greek City States. 146 marks independent history of Greek City States. It merges with Romans. Rome acquires a lot of territory. Rome organizes overseas territories as provinces and in return they will get annual tribute, which was ten percent. Roman state comes into ownership of a ton of land and enslaves tens of thousands who resisted rule. Uses property and slaves and leases it out to Roman citizens. Patricians control government and says state should lease the land in big pieces so the overwhelming majority of land goes to the patrician class, who go from modestly wealthy to extremely wealthy. Slaves are auctioned off, and some plebeians buy slaves. Start slave plantation agriculture. The plantations were called latifundia. Opportunity in warfare for plebeians to rise in ranks. Rome opens new commercial opportunities. New middle class formed in Rome and called equestrian class. Equestrian relating to horses, knights, military. Wealthy enough to own a horse when called into military status. Patricians grow a bit. The plebeian farmer finds it tough to compete with latifundia. Price drops because of flooding the market. Politicians adopt a welfare class. Kind of hush money to protect poor from attacking the wealthy. Bread and Circus. Free bread and free public shows. Create a volatile situation in which there is a class of wealthy and powerful people that splinters. The optimates (old families) and populares (new money). Roman ruling class addicted to war. Wealth is power. Cato The Elder decries all the changes and pines for simpler age. Tiberius Gracchus: represented new money and organized against optimates. Poor people had a tremendous amount of power if organized. Decides to utilize the democratic power of the constitution to mobilize poor against rich. Realizes the number 1 problem of that century was unemployment because of loss of land. Proposed changing the way public land was leased. Instead of large blocks to rich senators. Law said only 600 acre cap and 20 free acres. Runs for office of tribune in 133. Assassinated. Ten years later, Gaius tries to do the same thing. Tribune in 123. Ruling class defied gods and killed Gaius. Need military power to make change. Marius was member of senate who wanted to be the number one man in Rome but realized he couldn’t do it through the ballot box. The one thing all the members of the senate have in common is greed. He appeals to that. Goes to the senate in 109 bc and tells senators that there was an opportunity in north Africa, tribal leader who was raiding roman property. Marius said give me a commission to raise an army and take down the tribal leader. Military service required land ownership. Weren’t enough soldiers to recruit because of landlessness. Finds a good army. Marius is a great military hero because he wins. Popular with citizens of Rome because he is a successful general. Other source is his army. More loyal to Marius than Rome, because he is helping them out. Gave them a means to marry and raise a family. Over the next decade he is elected consul 6 times. Used power and reputation to take political power. Sets agenda for politics in Rome for next three centuries. Tremendous territorial expansion, a century of political violence. Sulla makes himself dictator of Rome around 88 BC. Pompey the Great in 70 BC starts a political conquest of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and North Spain. Conflict starts between Senate and army. In 60 BC senate tries to stand up to generals and start the first triumvirate. Pompey and two other generals (Crassus, Gaius Julius Caesar). 50s – Caesar conquers Gaul.

Rome: The Republic and the Empire

Rome is in Italy and the Romans speak Latin. Migrate to Italy around 1000 bc, about the times Dorians moved into Greece. Latins occupied space between Greeks and the Etruscans which is modern day Tuscany. Rome itself was founded on a hill town based on the Tiber, where there was some protection and it was on seven hills. There was an island which facilitated defense, and they were up high for defense and help against diseases like Malaria. Myth of fratridal twins who were offspring of Mars (war).

Named Romulus and Remus, raised by a female wolf. Romulus killed Remus. So, it was called Rome. 753 BC so that marked year one of the Roman calendar. Expulsion of Turquin the Proud, the Etruscan King. This created the Period of the Roman Republic. Swore they would never have a king again. Wanted Rome to belong to everyone. Rez Publica – The Public Thing. Roman Empire. Not Kingdom, because they would not have a king. Class system division between workers and land owners. Patricians and Plebeians. They look to the method of other political institutions, such as consuls and senate. Why are Plebeians going to win equality? Plebeians are armed part of the militia. 494: Right to veto for plebeians. 471: Plebeian assembly. 449: Law of twelve tables. 300: Plebeians enter major magistracies. 287: Plebeian assembly made supreme. Bribe promise to make you patrician by adoption to patrician family. Became democratic, but patricians remained in control essentially.

Roman Expansion

Want to defeat Etruscans and expand. They defeat them in 405 and become militant as they control north central Italy. They naturally want more. They move to the south encountering the Greeks. In 282, Romans defeated King Pyrrhus of Epirus. She is not the only expansionist state. Their rival is Carthage, Northwestern Africa (Tunisia). Descended from Phoenicians who had established an empire in Mediterranean region. Compete over the island of Sicily. This marks a period of warfare that last for a little more than 100 years. These are the Punic Wars. There are three. Make Rome dominant in Mediterranean.

Precocious Centuries

Good and evil, what makes us happy…etc.

Buddhism – Siddhartha Gautama ca 500. pp.41-42 Leads the life of ascetic. Requires reputation of being holy and becomes a teacher to his disciples. His movement becomes popular because he methods seem doable. The middle way – argued that happiness was found by practicing moderation. A balance between hedonism and extreme asceticism. Epicurus talked about pleasure pain as well with the golden mean. Four noble truths. 1. Everyone suffers. 2. Suffering can be overcome. 3. Suffering is caused by desire. 4. You can overcome desire by following the eight fold path. Buddhism taught the doctrine of reincarnation. Eventually desire can be purged and reincarnation ends when you become one with the force of nature. Brahmanic religion is threatened by Buddhism, so some changes happen. It becomes Hinduism. Combines pantheism with polytheism.

Chinese Philosophy

No real religion. They will bring one from the outside. Seek secular solutions to their problems which are characteristic of any country that wants to be large. Variety makes the different groups want to split. Confucius (551-479) Analects on p. 48-49. Filial Piety, idea of gentlemen, aristocratic paternalism, Mandarin class. Second thinker, Mozi. Is an urbanite, unlike rural Confucius. People who make money in cities are self made men. Mozi objects to the aristocratic monopoly on power put in place by the Confucius system. He uses argument of totalitarianism. Deeds are more important than family status. Daoism: Lao Tzu (6^th century): Dao de jing. Want to be left alone. Not concerned with rest of community and individuals should live their life without the big government. China collapses into warring states between 403 and 221. Sun Tzu’s Art of War. Page 52-53. Philosophy – legalism, justification for authoritarian government. Because people are bad, greedy, and if we were left alone we would kill each other off. Page 54-58.

The Greeks

The most important cities aren’t in Greece, just throughout Middle East. Multi ethnic and governed by despots (absolute rulers). Greeks will less focus on politics and more on personal happiness. This leads to development of ethical systems. Stoicism – founded by Zeno 335-262. Epicureanism – Epicurus 340-270. Seek what is pleasure, avoid what is painful. This is the pleasure pain principle and Epicureanism. Not always clear. Indulge enough to be pleasurable, but not to a painful extent. The golden mean. Doing a job well gives pleasure. That was insight of Zeno. He thought physical pleasure was fleeting. “Human life has a purpose and we achieve satisfaction by doing something purposeful, doing our jobs well. Greek becomes a language of law commerce and culture. Greek calendar and coinage become more and more standard. Greek cities become prominent for trade, like Alexandria. Hellenistic age is known as the birth of science. Reflect on the physical world and try to understand through science. Euclid and geometry., Archimedes of Syracuse, interested in force.

Asian Religion and Philosophy

Precocious Century. They go through a fertile period of creativity. Intellectual revolutions in sixth, fifth, and fourth centuries. Proper social order – how should we be related? What makes us happy? What is good and evil? Answers are found in religion and philosophy. What is the difference in religion and philosophy? In philosophy you understand the world by studying human society using reason. They are rational. The source of religious truth is revelation. It is handed down by a supernatural power. A couple of notions are important; Asceticism and Mysticism. Asceticism is the belief that you can attain enlightenment only by reducing your dependence upon physical stimuli such as possessions, food, and sex. Mysticism is a belief in the supernatural. Based on visions and experiences. Theism: monotheism, polytheism, pantheism – everything, atheist.

Ancient Persia

Persia becomes considerable in 5^th and 6^th centuries when Cyrus makes it grow to boundaries of India. It is also beginning to grow a cohesive view of the world. Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster or Zarathustra ca 1000 BC. He brings up the problem of evil. See page 9. If God is good, where does the bad come from? Zoroaster said there were two creative forces. Ahuramazda and Ahriman. Good and Bad. It isn’t a monotheism or polytheism, it is a dualistic religion. Argues that human life is a struggle between good and evil. Called upon to do good, tempted to do evil. At the end of our lives we would be judged by Ahuramazda. Kings convert and everyone wants in. It becomes the thing.

Indian Religion

Head of the ancient hierarchy or the Brahmans. They develop a religion that reinforces the social structure. It is a pantheistic religion. They see human life going on, but human life continues through multiple existences, your soul is reborn in another body. Karma, and a strong caste system. Develop a religious tradition blaming caste system on karma. Reincarnation moves you up or down a caste depending on your works. Challenges begin to arise. Leads to Jainism and Buddhism. Both aim at developing a experience. What will fulfill me? Jainism founder Vardhamana Mahavira. We all share in a single force of life. We will be happiest when this force flourishes. Found in extreme asceticism. Buddhism – Siddhartha Gautama. Not as extreme as Jainism.