The fall of the Carolingian Empire

9^th and 10^th centuries: second century of invasion. Some of the Carolingian collapse had to do with struggle within royal family. There was a division of the empire in the Treaty of Verdun. Charles the Bald given western (France), Louis the German given eastern kingdom (germany) and Lothair is screwed with the middle territory. He also inherits title of emperor. But he has problems at all sides. Middle kingdom is in the high up alps which splits Lothair’s kingdom in half. Difficulty in communication, which brings cultural differences. Each brother aspires to reunite the kingdom, but circumstances prevent that from happening. Franks territory invaded by north from Norse, East by Avars and Magyars and a renewed Islamic invasion. Vikings are the most famous of the invaders. Vikings were from Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Support in Scandinavia was dense. Scandinavians develop naval technology, including very seaworthy/raiding vessels. Called dragon ships. Scandinavians range all over. As Vikings gain knowledge of the land, they move from being raiders to being settlers. One of the principle regions that they settle is called the Danelaw, the northeastern portion of England. Louis III. Charles the Simple: 898-922. A Danish cheiftan named Rollo conquered the northern region of France then colonized what we know as Normandy. Rollo ordained duke of Normandy. Rurik, prince of Kiev, crystallized first Russian state. The Norwegians travel across the north Atlantic developing settlements all over. Why do the Scandinavians travel across north Atlantic and stop? The ice shield of Greenland. Leif Erickson – October 9^th. Age of Feudal Relations (or whatever). Discovery of a new paradigm, a new way of doing things. Kings become weak, unable to do what government is supposed to do, namely provide security. If king cannot protect people, the people have to protect themselves. So Europe begins to fragment into localities. And whatever protection is provided is on a local basis by local elites. Elites come to power out of ability to defend local populations and because of their ability to control local places. A key to this power is the fort, a measure of protection. An era of castle building. The people with castles are the people with power. Castles afford some protection. Agreements begin to be made. Lords and Vassals. I’m loyal to you because of my oath of loyalty. There is a ceremony. Many vassals receive castles in return for military service. That is fiefdom. Fief is the land received conditionally in return for military service. Vassals are not farmers, they are soldiers. That is land to rule. Tenant farmers farm your crops.

Around 800, he has himself crowned roman emperor. But why? As the ruler of the west, he didn’t want to concede anything to the ruler in the east. Secondly, we tend to define progress as moving forward, something new. They think progress is going backwards. Memory of success, to be successful is to be like Romans. Takes mental construct of roman empire an puts himself as the new emperor. In some ways he was kidding himself. First of all, geographical differences. From Mediterranean to continental. Charlemagne had no standing army, had very small advisors. Lacks the economic base of Roman empire. Charlemagne lived in an under populated agrarian Europe. Little money in circulation. Charlemagne was discovered to be 6’4” tall. They try to tie people down with obligations. Vassi dominici – military men who had the obligation to fight where and when needed, because they were given landholdings. He has more vassals than anyone because he has a ton of land. Counts set out to rule districts in his name. They are pretty much on their own, so Charlemagne has to bank on their loyalty. There was a sort of transition period. He spends the offseason traveling the empire, visiting vassals and counts. Missi Dominici – visiting party. Missi – those who have been sent forth. Missi are pretty much wined and dined. System was cheap. Seemed to work because Charlemagne was successful in forming bonds of obligation between himself and the Frankish soldiers serving for him. This loyalty does not easily pass on through generations. Charlemagne realized his regime was fragile. He knew he needed to establish some kind of institutional base for power. The first thing he knew he needed was a literate bureaucracy. He needs this to communicate in a short period of time. You need a common language. This was something of a concern because the world of Charlemagne was multicultural including dozens of different languages. Deliberately revives Latin. Instruct some individuals in the reading and writing of Latin. Small network of schools started. Seats of the bishop. Charlemagne calls upon bishops to organize small schools to create a literate group of people in service not only of church, but also state. Central school at Aachen which is to train officials for the central administration. In order for school to be good enough, he brings in an outside expert. Sets Alcuin of York to overlook the building of the schools. In order to instruct in Latin, people are going to have to read. One book at a time. Carolingians revolutionize how books are written. If you write quickly, it may be illegible. Carolingians introduce a new medium for writing. The ancients wrote on papyrus. Carolingians couldn’t get the Egyptian papyrus because of Muslims and money. They use prepared and scraped animal skins – parchment. Carolingians introduced spacing and lowercase letters. Carolingian renaissance. Einhard writes the life of Charlemagne. Great lesson is that there is no going back. No matter how hard he tried, he couldn’t organize Europe like Rome. 843 – Terminal date of the empire. Two grandsons want to divide it. France and Germany result from the Treaty of Verdun of 843. Like the Roman Empire it fell apart because of internal and external problems. Charlemagne’s descendants are unable to maintain obligations. Externally, the frontiers of empire come under military pressure from the north (Norse) and south (Muslims) and from the east (avars and mayar Hungarians). Louis the pious s Charles sole surviving son. Charlemagne had a group of sons, but because he lived to a relatively old age, only his youngest son survives him. Louis inherits entire empire. Also known as Louis I. His problems come from three directions. The Vikings become a serious concern. Secondly, he was fertile, but he had 3 sons. Louis was more educated the Charlemagne, he intends to give everything to Lothair. Charles the bald and Louis the german revolt against that. He was pious, not scary, so personal relationships between vassals and counts and missi, because he was weak.

Clovis and Charlemagne

Merovingian infrastructure beginning to collapse. 481-511. Dagobert was last good Merovingian and the successors were called the Do Nothing Kings. Carolingians – beneficiaries of Mero violence. Pepin of Landen – mayor of the palace of Austrasia. Austrasia was a region of the Frankish kingdom. Uses his position to advance the wealth and position of his family. He hands his position to a descendant, Pepin II of Heristal, who invades northern Gaul (Neustria). He then hands his position down to his son, even though he had many wives, and many children. Charles Martel gets all of it, not just a portion. Charles expands kingdom into South (Aquitaine and Burgundy) and he moves east into South-Central Germany, especially around Bavaria. Battle of Tours 732. St. Boniface and Germany. No last names, so named after distinguishing characteristics. Martel is from Latin word for hammer. The Hammer of the Franks. Charles leaves two adult sons, Pepin III, the Short and Carloman. He divides kingdom between two. Pepin in North, Carloman in south. Brothers cooperate with each other and after six years, Carloman voluntarily enters a monastery. Pepin is tired of the Do Nothing Merovingian kings. Kings claim to be called of God to be king. Consecrated as king, 751, Pope Stephen II. In 755, he takes army into Lombard, and takes authority of bishop of Rome over Rome. Called the Donation of Pepin. He spends next 17 years conquer and dividing. Two sons, Charles and Carloman. He divides the kingdom in half and gives them up. Carloman was out hunting, and in the woods, one of his entourage hits Carloman with an arrow and is killed. There is no evidence Charles had anything to do with it. Charles claims entire realm for himself. Charles, Carolus Magnus, Charles the Great, Charlemagne. Frankish power comes to a peak in his reign. Gains power and holds on for some 45 years. Conquers Lombards in northern Italy. They had promised to keep their hands off Rome with Pepin III. When Pepin died, Lombards tore up treaty and resumed military offensive in Rome. In a short campaign in 773-4 he defeats Lombards and crowns himself King of the Lombards (the iron crown of the Lombards). He then conquers Saxony in Germany. Engages in a long and bloody war against Saxons. War lasts 30 years. The Saragossa and Barcelona in Spain. Lost at Saragossa (Roland protected the Frankish as it passed Pyrenees).

Christianity developed as Judean sect…Sadducees, Pharisees, Zealots, and Essenes.

Earliest Christians were Jewish, and modern historians debate how long Christians were Jewish. Paul is apostle to the gentiles. By the end of the first century, there are more gentile Christians than Jewish Christians. Two stages in Christian development. Early church was very small; conversion was very slow for first hundred years. Roman indifference and persecution, motive for not becoming a Christian. Christianity promises salvation and is broadly based. Small mystery cults started springing up. Christianity was most open and least secretive. Promise was regardless of class, gender and ethnicity. Women converted before men. Moral message that appealed to stoics and women. Stoics because they insisted on a very moral life. Women saw security in Christian marriage. Sense of community: works of mercy, charity. Sense of urgency: Parousia (thus no hurry to write down Jesus narratives). Erratic and sporadic persecution. Pliny the younger wrote to an emperor about having early Christians and the emperor said not to do anything unless the cause trouble. Pax Romana. Roman Peace. Ideas could spread rapidly, so disciples like Paul could get on a ship and go around Rome preaching the gospel. Emperor becomes Christian in fourth century, so do upper classes, and so does mass conversion. Authority within the early church. Paul’s letters show conflict over the early Christian church. Can’t eliminate conflict, but minimizes by providing a mechanism for resolving differences. They create authority, which saved Christianity. The difference between those who are taught and those who are being taught. Founded by apostles, then there is a bishop instructed by apostles in faith. He mediates disputes. Priests, deacons. Different Christian communities. Most early Christians were urban. People in country side were called pagans. Most senior bishops are patriarch. Five traditional, Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Rome, Constantinople; in order of establishment. Established scripture. Teaching was oral in Christian community. Paul, Peter, James write letter of instruction. Gospels written as narrative of Christ’s life. Best way to fix a dispute is a meeting, called a council or senate. Around 60, council deciding whether gentile men had to be circumcised. First major is at Nicaea in 325. Constantine wanted to use Christianity to conquer the empire, so at Nicaea he tells them to work it out. Nicene Creed. Imperial patronage. In 313, Constantine and eastern colleague Lucinius, end the persecution started by Diocletian. Edict of Milan ends that persecution, but favors Christians. Build large churches (basilica, church of holy apostles, etc.), restores confiscated land, weekend. Gov offices were to close every 7^th day, the Christian Sabbath. Since Sunday was a day of rest he had the weekend. When Constantine dies in 339, he is baptized. Massive upper class conversions. Romans are living in country sides because of agriculture. Theodosian Code in 395 makes Christianity state religion. It doesn’t mean everyone is a Christian, but the people in control of society are.

Missed a couple of days

2/27/08 – Heirs of the Romans, Germans, Byzantines and Muslims

Five pillars of Islam – One God and Muhammad is prophet, Daily prayers, almsgiving to the needy, fasting, hajj to Mecca. History of Islam – development of Islamic world and Islamic civilization. The Islamic world develops quickly, conquer vast regions quickly (50 yrs), because the people they were taking were weak. They struck at an opportune time as Byzantine and Persians were exhausting each other. 632 – Muhammad dies. Successor called Caliph but there is dispute over who the successor is. Should office of Caliph have a prophetic calling? Any man or relative of Muhammad? This is the argument. First Dynasty – Umayyad. Second – Abbasids. Sunni Muslims accept the leaders that don’t have prophets. Followers of Ali call themselves Shiites. Caliphs go to conquer empire from Afghanistan to Western Europe including Spain 711. Abbasids have ties to Sh’ia and in first hundred years portion of people convert and become Muslim. The rich and powerful convert first with expectations to retain wealth. Umayyad want a pro-Arab policy. 750, bloody revolution in capital of Damascus (accessible to Arab conquering territories). Kill every male member of the Umayyad family. Capital of Damascus moved near Tigris river to Baghdad. Becomes capital of entire Islamic years for over 500 years. One Umayyad escapes, so he goes to Spain and by about 755, he is the ruler of Spain. Cordoba is the second capital of Muslim world. Egyptian Muslims claim independence. Three Caliphs. In 1055 – Seljuk Turks conquer Baghdad, and dominate Caliphate. Abbasids are puppets to the Seljuk. Mongols eventually end the Abbasid Caliph and Turkish empire has title of Caliph. Islam puts together an important civilization. For the first 500 years, Arabs are open to the cultures that they encounter. What is the relationship between science and religion. Man of science, Man of Faith. Does science contradict religion? Until 13^th century, Muslims are open to cultures they conquer. They take the science and philosophy of Persian and Roman worlds. This keeps and increases the cultures. Ibn Rushd and theory of the Double Truth. The importance of Arabic also holds the civilization together. Arabic becomes common language, so non Arabic speakers have to learn to speak it since it is language of conquerors. Muhammad said God spoke to him in Arabic. Muslims are resistant to thought that Quran be translated out of Arabic. Mecca – brings people together and disseminates the ideas and technologies (irrigation, cotton, sugar, melons, dates, rice, paper, citrus, etc.). Muslim civilization reaches peak around 9^th 10^th and 11^th centuries. Ibn Rushd exiled because authorities become suspicious of science and secular knowledge.

Kingdom of the Franks – From Clovis to Charlemagne

Clovis – 481 – 511. Leader among Frankish people who hailed from area around mouth of the Rhine river. In late 5^th century, Final roman authority in Gaul is challenged. Clovis begins an invasion on this authority. He essentially consolidates control over Franks. Clovis says “Woe is me, I have no relatives” he killed them all. At the same time he is killing political rivals, he is extending Frankish authority over Gaul. Baptism in 496. Did it for power. No respectable Christian roman family could have daughter marry a pagan. In order to be successful he had to win over the roman upper class, so he married one. 507 - The Battle of Vouille, he defeats major Germanic opposition in Gaul – the Visigoths get kicked out and moved to Spain. Clovis had support of bishops because Visigoth king was a heretic. Clovis unites Gaul and it becomes the Merovingian kingdom. He and his descendants rule Gaul for the next 200 years. Treat kingdom not as a state but united. Divided kingdom among four principle sons. Frankish kingdom isn’t attacked in weakness. Franks regroup under a new group called the Carolingians.

The Romans

Kick out Etruscan king and establish a republic. Italy is in Mediterranean. Subject surrounding communities to Roman rule. This brings Rome in conflict with Carthage who was about 75 years older. Carthage had a commercial state around top of Africa, and was richest city state n Mediterranean, benefiting from soil of southern Spain. In 264, Rome and Carthage fight over Sicily. Marks the beginning of the Punic Wars. B/t 264 and 146 there are three wars. 264-241 – Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica. Second war: 218 – 202, Hannibal vs. Scipio Africanus; southern Spain. Greek settlers were helping out the Carthaginians in the fight against Rome. Carthage loses all three of the Punic wars. In 202 there was a debate in Rome over how big to become. They decide to go for it. Conquer Carthage and Northern Africa around Carthage and Greek City States. 146 marks independent history of Greek City States. It merges with Romans. Rome acquires a lot of territory. Rome organizes overseas territories as provinces and in return they will get annual tribute, which was ten percent. Roman state comes into ownership of a ton of land and enslaves tens of thousands who resisted rule. Uses property and slaves and leases it out to Roman citizens. Patricians control government and says state should lease the land in big pieces so the overwhelming majority of land goes to the patrician class, who go from modestly wealthy to extremely wealthy. Slaves are auctioned off, and some plebeians buy slaves. Start slave plantation agriculture. The plantations were called latifundia. Opportunity in warfare for plebeians to rise in ranks. Rome opens new commercial opportunities. New middle class formed in Rome and called equestrian class. Equestrian relating to horses, knights, military. Wealthy enough to own a horse when called into military status. Patricians grow a bit. The plebeian farmer finds it tough to compete with latifundia. Price drops because of flooding the market. Politicians adopt a welfare class. Kind of hush money to protect poor from attacking the wealthy. Bread and Circus. Free bread and free public shows. Create a volatile situation in which there is a class of wealthy and powerful people that splinters. The optimates (old families) and populares (new money). Roman ruling class addicted to war. Wealth is power. Cato The Elder decries all the changes and pines for simpler age. Tiberius Gracchus: represented new money and organized against optimates. Poor people had a tremendous amount of power if organized. Decides to utilize the democratic power of the constitution to mobilize poor against rich. Realizes the number 1 problem of that century was unemployment because of loss of land. Proposed changing the way public land was leased. Instead of large blocks to rich senators. Law said only 600 acre cap and 20 free acres. Runs for office of tribune in 133. Assassinated. Ten years later, Gaius tries to do the same thing. Tribune in 123. Ruling class defied gods and killed Gaius. Need military power to make change. Marius was member of senate who wanted to be the number one man in Rome but realized he couldn’t do it through the ballot box. The one thing all the members of the senate have in common is greed. He appeals to that. Goes to the senate in 109 bc and tells senators that there was an opportunity in north Africa, tribal leader who was raiding roman property. Marius said give me a commission to raise an army and take down the tribal leader. Military service required land ownership. Weren’t enough soldiers to recruit because of landlessness. Finds a good army. Marius is a great military hero because he wins. Popular with citizens of Rome because he is a successful general. Other source is his army. More loyal to Marius than Rome, because he is helping them out. Gave them a means to marry and raise a family. Over the next decade he is elected consul 6 times. Used power and reputation to take political power. Sets agenda for politics in Rome for next three centuries. Tremendous territorial expansion, a century of political violence. Sulla makes himself dictator of Rome around 88 BC. Pompey the Great in 70 BC starts a political conquest of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and North Spain. Conflict starts between Senate and army. In 60 BC senate tries to stand up to generals and start the first triumvirate. Pompey and two other generals (Crassus, Gaius Julius Caesar). 50s – Caesar conquers Gaul.

Rome: The Republic and the Empire

Rome is in Italy and the Romans speak Latin. Migrate to Italy around 1000 bc, about the times Dorians moved into Greece. Latins occupied space between Greeks and the Etruscans which is modern day Tuscany. Rome itself was founded on a hill town based on the Tiber, where there was some protection and it was on seven hills. There was an island which facilitated defense, and they were up high for defense and help against diseases like Malaria. Myth of fratridal twins who were offspring of Mars (war).

Named Romulus and Remus, raised by a female wolf. Romulus killed Remus. So, it was called Rome. 753 BC so that marked year one of the Roman calendar. Expulsion of Turquin the Proud, the Etruscan King. This created the Period of the Roman Republic. Swore they would never have a king again. Wanted Rome to belong to everyone. Rez Publica – The Public Thing. Roman Empire. Not Kingdom, because they would not have a king. Class system division between workers and land owners. Patricians and Plebeians. They look to the method of other political institutions, such as consuls and senate. Why are Plebeians going to win equality? Plebeians are armed part of the militia. 494: Right to veto for plebeians. 471: Plebeian assembly. 449: Law of twelve tables. 300: Plebeians enter major magistracies. 287: Plebeian assembly made supreme. Bribe promise to make you patrician by adoption to patrician family. Became democratic, but patricians remained in control essentially.

Roman Expansion

Want to defeat Etruscans and expand. They defeat them in 405 and become militant as they control north central Italy. They naturally want more. They move to the south encountering the Greeks. In 282, Romans defeated King Pyrrhus of Epirus. She is not the only expansionist state. Their rival is Carthage, Northwestern Africa (Tunisia). Descended from Phoenicians who had established an empire in Mediterranean region. Compete over the island of Sicily. This marks a period of warfare that last for a little more than 100 years. These are the Punic Wars. There are three. Make Rome dominant in Mediterranean.

Precocious Centuries

Good and evil, what makes us happy…etc.

Buddhism – Siddhartha Gautama ca 500. pp.41-42 Leads the life of ascetic. Requires reputation of being holy and becomes a teacher to his disciples. His movement becomes popular because he methods seem doable. The middle way – argued that happiness was found by practicing moderation. A balance between hedonism and extreme asceticism. Epicurus talked about pleasure pain as well with the golden mean. Four noble truths. 1. Everyone suffers. 2. Suffering can be overcome. 3. Suffering is caused by desire. 4. You can overcome desire by following the eight fold path. Buddhism taught the doctrine of reincarnation. Eventually desire can be purged and reincarnation ends when you become one with the force of nature. Brahmanic religion is threatened by Buddhism, so some changes happen. It becomes Hinduism. Combines pantheism with polytheism.

Chinese Philosophy

No real religion. They will bring one from the outside. Seek secular solutions to their problems which are characteristic of any country that wants to be large. Variety makes the different groups want to split. Confucius (551-479) Analects on p. 48-49. Filial Piety, idea of gentlemen, aristocratic paternalism, Mandarin class. Second thinker, Mozi. Is an urbanite, unlike rural Confucius. People who make money in cities are self made men. Mozi objects to the aristocratic monopoly on power put in place by the Confucius system. He uses argument of totalitarianism. Deeds are more important than family status. Daoism: Lao Tzu (6^th century): Dao de jing. Want to be left alone. Not concerned with rest of community and individuals should live their life without the big government. China collapses into warring states between 403 and 221. Sun Tzu’s Art of War. Page 52-53. Philosophy – legalism, justification for authoritarian government. Because people are bad, greedy, and if we were left alone we would kill each other off. Page 54-58.

The Greeks

The most important cities aren’t in Greece, just throughout Middle East. Multi ethnic and governed by despots (absolute rulers). Greeks will less focus on politics and more on personal happiness. This leads to development of ethical systems. Stoicism – founded by Zeno 335-262. Epicureanism – Epicurus 340-270. Seek what is pleasure, avoid what is painful. This is the pleasure pain principle and Epicureanism. Not always clear. Indulge enough to be pleasurable, but not to a painful extent. The golden mean. Doing a job well gives pleasure. That was insight of Zeno. He thought physical pleasure was fleeting. “Human life has a purpose and we achieve satisfaction by doing something purposeful, doing our jobs well. Greek becomes a language of law commerce and culture. Greek calendar and coinage become more and more standard. Greek cities become prominent for trade, like Alexandria. Hellenistic age is known as the birth of science. Reflect on the physical world and try to understand through science. Euclid and geometry., Archimedes of Syracuse, interested in force.

Asian Religion and Philosophy

Precocious Century. They go through a fertile period of creativity. Intellectual revolutions in sixth, fifth, and fourth centuries. Proper social order – how should we be related? What makes us happy? What is good and evil? Answers are found in religion and philosophy. What is the difference in religion and philosophy? In philosophy you understand the world by studying human society using reason. They are rational. The source of religious truth is revelation. It is handed down by a supernatural power. A couple of notions are important; Asceticism and Mysticism. Asceticism is the belief that you can attain enlightenment only by reducing your dependence upon physical stimuli such as possessions, food, and sex. Mysticism is a belief in the supernatural. Based on visions and experiences. Theism: monotheism, polytheism, pantheism – everything, atheist.

Ancient Persia

Persia becomes considerable in 5^th and 6^th centuries when Cyrus makes it grow to boundaries of India. It is also beginning to grow a cohesive view of the world. Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster or Zarathustra ca 1000 BC. He brings up the problem of evil. See page 9. If God is good, where does the bad come from? Zoroaster said there were two creative forces. Ahuramazda and Ahriman. Good and Bad. It isn’t a monotheism or polytheism, it is a dualistic religion. Argues that human life is a struggle between good and evil. Called upon to do good, tempted to do evil. At the end of our lives we would be judged by Ahuramazda. Kings convert and everyone wants in. It becomes the thing.

Indian Religion

Head of the ancient hierarchy or the Brahmans. They develop a religion that reinforces the social structure. It is a pantheistic religion. They see human life going on, but human life continues through multiple existences, your soul is reborn in another body. Karma, and a strong caste system. Develop a religious tradition blaming caste system on karma. Reincarnation moves you up or down a caste depending on your works. Challenges begin to arise. Leads to Jainism and Buddhism. Both aim at developing a experience. What will fulfill me? Jainism founder Vardhamana Mahavira. We all share in a single force of life. We will be happiest when this force flourishes. Found in extreme asceticism. Buddhism – Siddhartha Gautama. Not as extreme as Jainism.

P.96-97 = Pericles speech before Peloponnesian war.

Hellenistic Age

Things go back to the way they were. Sparta tries to translate its victory into hegemony (exercise of control over other countries). It fails in part due to the limitations of Spartan society. Thebes also tries to do it, but the bottom line is no one succeeds. Greece fragments into independent city states. This makes Greece vulnerable to outside aggression. In the 4^th century, the Persian Empire was almost disintegrating because of lack of common identity. Greeks didn’t regard Macedonians as Greeks; they were Barbaros (foreigner). People in Macedonia had over the period of centuries grown to be like the Greeks through acculturation. Except, it was organized as a kingdom rather than city states. Potential to command more troops than any city states. King is Philp of Macedon from 359-336. Philp grew up knowing fighting. He was a hoplite. He knew how Greeks fought and trained, knew the battle strategy, and knew how much the Greeks hated each other. His agents do everything they can to boil the rumors and divide Greece. He also revolutionized the Macedonian Army and trains it as a Greek army. So, by 338, Philip can conquer the city states in small groups. Battle of Chaeronea was last of them in 338. Philip is like Julius Caesar, wanted to keep going. He probably wanted to do what his son had in mind. Right next door was the Persian Empire. In 336, his own army officer assassinated him. In 336, Alexander becomes the heir. Becomes heir at about 20. At time was studying philosophy under Aristotle. Alexander proved to be of great military ability. Rallies army, defeats city states, and demolishes the city of Thebes in uprisings. Then calls upon Greeks to destroy Persians. Understands military tactics and politics, so he defeats Persia. Promises liberation to Greeks and Egyptians and they buy it and help against the Persians which helps him demolish the empire. Troops mutiny in 327 “we have fought for 7 years; it is time to go home.” Marries daughter of previous Persian king and encourages soldiers to marry local women in an attempt to merge the upper classes. Dies at age 33 of some disease. Leaves behind his pregnant wife. So, the empire breaks into three chunks. The Seleucids (Mesopotamia and Persia) the Ptolemy (Egypt) and the Antigonids (Macedonia and most of Asia Minor). Greek City states return to the way they were.

Alexander the Great

Why so great? Historians have decided that he deserves title. He had a permanent impact of history. He created a new phase of civilization know as Hellenistic or Greek-like. People continue to speak Greek. Greek is a principle second language, principle for communication. Greek culture just becomes incredibly prominent. The consequence of Alexander’s conquest is unity.

Ideas

How we understand people in previous civilizations. Culture – how we express many forms ideas take in society. Culture reflects everyday life. Athenian culture – Secular, religion was polytheism, even though they regarded them as powerful, they saw them as capricious. So, the Greeks were interested in human existence that they could control. In terms of Athens, we see progression in literature. The first progression is in the theatre. Pisistratus commissioned plays. Aeschylus (7 plays) – Oresteia. Sophocles (7) – Oedipus Trilogy. Euripides (19) – Oresteia, Medea, etc. Pg. 91-92. Plays based on well known rumors. Greeks didn’t believe in progress and free will, they saw life as an endless circle (such as the metaphor of the year). Had a great belief in fate. It is not what your fate is, but how you deal with it.

Development of the Athenian constitution

Middle class is usually most active group. Have some wealth but lack the name and traditions of the aristocrats. This creation led to overthrow of dictatorship by Cleisthenes in 508. New constitution based on democracy giving power to the people to kind of sell his view. Creates large assembly with power for every citizen (locally born, free, male adults). Created Boule (assembly of 500) that was selected by lot. Separated people into ten tribes who selected 50 men at random each year. Direct election of 10 generals (Strategoi) one year terms. Anyone who refused this could be exiled for ten years from Athens. At the same time, Athens is becoming involved in the greater world because at the heart of the new economy is trade.

Persian Wars

Cyrus the Great, King of the Mees, 559-530, consolidating Middle East. Darius from 521-486. Some Greeks fell under Persian rule. They decided to fight back. This was in western Anatolia. Fairly easy to reach region by sea, but difficult by land. Greek city states in Ionia rebel against them because they get assistance from Athens, and mountains can fight off Persians. Persian empire is multi-national/multi-ethnic. Made up of people like Ionian Greeks. If Greeks were successful, Persian wealth wouldn’t change much. Darius decided if he can neutralize Athens, he can solve the problem. Best play would be to cooperate with aristocrats in Athens. “I will invade and oust the democrat gov’t, reinstate dictatorship, and then in return you will adopt a policy of benevolent neutrality to the Persian empire.” In 490, he does that. Sends Persian navy into Aegean with about 20000 troops. 10000 Athenians win because of landscape. One of the soldiers ran from Marathon to Athens with the news, 24.3 miles, gets to acropolis, says we won, and drops dead. Baby Athens beat King Persia. Xerxes decides the only thing Persia can do is annex all of Greece. Well over 100000 men fight 300 Athens in the battle of Thermopylae. So hard to cooperate because Greeks are disunited. Xerxes men tear up Greece and most of Athens is burned down. This is in 480. So in 479 they place all of their infantry under Spartan command and Battles of Plataea and Salamis defeat Xerxes. These are called the Persian Wars. This is what launched Athens on a road to Empire.

Confederation of Delos

After war, great rivalry between Athens and Sparta. Spartans are still pretty weird. They didn’t really want to become leading city state, so they withdraw to Peloponnesus. Athens and Ionian cities aren’t sure things are safe, because Persian Empire is still huge. So they formed a military confederation. The Confederation of Delos centered on island of Delos which is center of Aegean. Island was where Apollo was born, no one lived there, it was a sacrosanct location. Build a treasure to build and maintain permanent fleet. Great navy. Athens was leader of the league. Greek politician Pericles turns army more towards Athens. Elected as strategoi in 461. Reelected for next 30 years. What do voters want? Reforms. Patriotism. Pericles appeals to patriotism and greed. Institutes reforms such as abolishing areopagus, reduces property qualification for office, pay for jurors, council members, soldiers, sailors. After Persians burned city, Pericles build it back up. Parthenon, Phidias, Erectheion, etc. Reconstructs the Agora and builds long walls to protect city. Did all of this without raising taxes. How? In 454 moved treasury to temple of Athena in Athens. Allies decide to withdraw. Pericles says they can’t withdraw. And he has a navy. Uses military to force cities into a political alliance with Athens. Opposes common weights and measures. Athens was uniting Greece. Everyone looks to Sparta for help. They form Peloponnesian league and a sort of cold war begins. In 431 a war begins. The Peloponnesian war. In 430 Athens was hit by the plague and Pericles died. Sparta gets naval power from Persians in 404 and Athens falls. Temporary oligarchy and restoration of democracy.

1/18/08

The Rise of Sparta

Abandoned children if unhealthy. Age of 7 they began 13 years of training. Marry Spartan females at 20. Maintained network of spies among slaves, and one day a year they declared war on slaves and arrested/killed any slaves under suspicion. Helots – slaves. Perioikoi - frontier village trade people…mildly normal. Sparta was only greek city state with kings, yet they had two kings. No political role, all military, leaders of army. Gerousia – 28 elders over 60. Conservative. Led their whole life being obedient getting power at 60. Assisted by five ephors, or magistrates. Apella – male citizens over 30. Ephors. Apella was a forum for debate. Oligarchy government but is based on age. Gerontocracy. Did what it was supposed to do. To prevent slave revolt. Does this for about 300 years. History of Sparta written by Sparta’s enemies.

Athens

Located in province of Attica, which is a peninsula jutting into Aegean sea. Largest in terms of territory of all city states. Begin with higher base of resources. Located a few miles inland to the sea. Early Athens was structurally like Greece. Aristocratic oligarchy. Translated control over land to political power. Power of Athens was areopagus. Magistrates – archons. Debt slavery. Couldn’t go bankrupt, so if you couldn’t pay you had to become a slave. Fell into debt to landlords and became enslaved. Then slaves were sold overseas causing a lot of social stress among Athenians. Broken up families. Produces displeasure and pressure and lower classes revolt. In 621 BC the aristocrats agree to write down the laws so that they are fixed. Draco, an archon, writes the laws down. They were harsh. Solon in 594 reforms ago and abolishes debt slavery, establishes assembly of all citizens (council of 400) opens juries but not magistracies, secludes women. To keep the peace, aristocrats resort in 6^th century to dictatorship. Ordered by tyrants. Most important was a man named Pisistratus. 546 – 527. He was the voice of the aristocracy to maintain that control over society. Athens needed fundamental changes and he knew this. He used his power to impose two kinds of changes: economic and social. Encourages farmers to switch crops, encourages them to focus on grapes and olives. No fertile soil needed, both have long taproots. Thrive in rugged terrain. This helped develop viniculture. Promotes the colonies near the Dardanelles. These would grow wheat and trade with Athens for oil and wine. To do this you need ship building, sailors, merchants. More diversified economy. Partly commercial, partly agriculture. Socially he did like gatherings. Greeks were making competitions between city states. Pisistratus holds Panathenaic Games in Athens every four years to draw community together. Established annual festival of Dionysius. His success was also his undoing. Middle class people become disgruntled that they were denied power because magistracies were still in hands of the rich families. Middle class plot revolution and replace government with a democracy. In 508 Cleisthenes leads a revolution creating new constitution and democracy. Creates a society in which the people will rule, there is an assembly of citizens called the Ecclesia. Assembly was on hillside across from acropolis. The Pinacs, the ecclesia met forty times a year. Every nine days. Nothing could be done without ecclesia approval. The people attended most likely lived close by. Nonetheless, big meetings controlled by? Boule - council of 500. meet when ecclesia wasn't meeting. boule was a civic duty, and people were chosen like juries. Strategoi. Ostracism - exile anyone for ten years if they were trouble makers. Social Reorganization - Athens was were family loyalty trumped everything else.

1/16/08

Mycenaean

Minoan ends about 1500 due to some natural calamity, north survive and take over Aegean sea. These are the Mycenaean. No direct evidence, just literary and archaeological. Heinrich Schliemann dug and uncovered the city of Mycenae. City Homer spoke of in the Iliad (King Agamemnon). Schliemann found death mask in Mycenae and assumed it to be the death mask of King Agamemnon. City on hilltop surrounded by walls, which tells us they were afraid of invasion. Polytheistic. Giant conflict between wife of King of Sparta kidnapped by Paris, Prince of Troy. Shows that women were considered property. Why else would Greeks attack Troy? Troy was a gateway to Black Sea, more fertile, more wood, more rainfall. End of Trojan war, Mycenaean period ends. Lost because they won. So warlike that they beat each other off and then collapsed. Around 1000 BC was period of migration towards Mediterranean.

The Dorians migrate in, Mycenaean towns disappear (except Athens), and people go back to a rural existence. This can be found in the Odyssey. Low level agri, hunter gatherer society. Cities begin to reappear, probably because of population increase. Centers of this were built around to focal points, the first was the Acropolis (high point of the city – place for protection, security). At the foot, they built an Agora, or a center of exchange. These settlements are called Polis. Start as market towns, have jurisdiction over urban core and surrounding country side because of the countries dependence of protection. These are called City-States. Greek is little peninsulas and landmass is divided by mountains. Geography carves Greece into pockets of population, leaving a city state to be formed. These city states are governed by aristocratic oligarchy. Wealth is power. Wealth here s equal to land ownership. Land is dominated by a few families, so most Greeks are tenant farmers (leasing land to farm), so landlords assume positions of political leadership. Greek word for best is Aristos. Economy is not of abundance but of scarcity, leading the way for conflict between the haves and have nots. All under attack, all need to be armed. Defense was in hand of militia, greek infantry soldiers called Hoplites. To deal with surplus, they export.

The Peloponnesus. Two most famous city states are Athens and Sparta. Yet neither are typical of the city state. They both became unusually powerful. Culminating event of the era is the Great war between Athens and Sparta in which Sparta wins. Also in politics, they represent the extremes. Sparta being the most authoritarian while Athens is the most free, creating democracy. Development of Athens and Sparta in archaic age and their interactions in the Golden Age.

Sparta is in southern most region of Balkan Peninsula. To get from Sparta to sea would take like a two day walk, so fishing etc was not there for them. They were Agrarian. In 9^th century, Sparta begins to grow. They begin to run out of room because of surplus population. Because of their distance to the sea, they can’t really immigrate. They cant trade because they were inland. “Where can we get resources to maintain population?” Go to war. They saw Messenia on the windward side of Balkan Peninsula that catches the rainfall. Somewhat more fertile, and a denser population, higher volume of food. Let’s feed ourselves by becoming a conquering people. Lets start slavery around the year 700. Attack Messenians. 700 – 650 BC. Learn that it is one thing to conquer the country, another thing to effectively occupy it. Want a peaceful occupation so Messenians can farm for them. 10 Messenians for every Spartan. Never-ending circle of conquest. Goes on for about 50 years, until Lycurgus (about 650 BC) decides to either withdraw or figure out a way from revolting year after year by intensifying troops, a surge! A permanent surge of troops in Messenia. Every able man must be a soldier. They become a militant society. Inspected at birth for defects and abandoned. Betweeb 7-20 they go to military school. 20-30 active soldiers. 30-60 serve in reserves. Messenians become slaves.

January 14th

History notes

1/14/08

What is history? It is a study of the past. It is the story that has survived. When does it begin? You need proof, records, etc. 4000-5000 BC. River valleys. Fertile soil, moisture, utilize irrigation which leads to society. Civilization spreads through trade acculturation – less complex societies imitate more complex to become that way.

The Greeks and Hellenic civilization

Greece is part of the Mediterranean. It is a large sea that divides three continental masses Europe, Africa, and Asia. The Mediterranean is an important node of civilization because of transportation and food. The Aegean sea is at the center of the Greek world. The vast majority of the islands in the sea are Greek. So Greek civilization starts as an Aegean civilization. Chronology – from chronos and logos, time in a sequence. Events take place sequentially. In order to understand history, we must understand sequence of events.

Minoan Period – 2000-1500

Mycenaean Period – 1500-1200

Homeric Age/Dorian Invasions – 1200-800

Age of the Polis – 800-300

Archaic – 800-500

Golden - 500-300

Hellenistic - 300-150

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization

Minoans – Centered on Crete. We don’t know what they are called. Their language is called Linear A. we have archaeological knowledge of them, but that is about it. Also have Greek mythology, what was said about Minoans. There is the myth of Minos. It is the story of the labyrinth and the minotaur. Historian dug in Knossos. Labeled in the palace of Minos. So Minoan civilization begins on Crete. Art shows prominence of women. Prevalent theory was it ended because of natural disaster in Mediterranean, resulting in tidal waves and volcanic ash.